Natural marine source phospholipids comprising polyunsaturated fatty acids and their applications

ABSTRACT

A phospholipid extract from a marine or aquatic biomass possesses therapeutic properties. The phospholipid extract comprises a variety of phospholipids, fatty acid, metals and a novel flavonoid.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority to the followingapplications. The present application is a continuation of pending U.S.patent application Ser. No. 13/189,714, which is a continuation of U.S.patent application Ser. No. 10/485,094 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,030,348)which is the §371 National Phase of International Application No.PCT/CA02/01185, which was published in English under PCT Article 21(2)as International Publication No. WO 03/011873, which claims the benefitof priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/307,842, filedJul. 27, 2001, which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to nutraceutical, pharmaceutical orcosmetic compositions, particularly to phospholipid compositions derivedfrom natural marine or aquatic sources.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

WO 92/21335 published on Dec. 10, 1992 and corresponding U.S. Pat. No.5,434,183 issued on Jul. 18, 1995 describes a phospholipid emulsionderived from marine and/or synthetic origin comprising polyunsaturatedfatty acids and having anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effectsand which promotes-normal brain or retinal development and function.U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,183 does not disclose the presence of flavonoids ornervonic acid (a mono-unsaturated fatty acid) in the composition.

JP 2215351, published on Aug. 28, 1990, discloses a method forextracting and purifying phospholipids from fresh krill. Krill islyophilized and then extracted with ethanol to produce an extract whichis fractionated by absorption column chromatography to produce highpurity phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidyl ethanolamine. There is nodisclosure of a composition comprising a flavonoid or nervonic acid.

WO 00/23546, published on Apr. 27, 2000, discloses methods forextracting lipid fractions from marine and aquatic animal material byacetone extractions. The resulting non-soluble and particulate fractionis further solvent extracted with ethanol or ethylacetate to achievefurther lipid extractions.

Hosokawa et al. (35), published in 2000, discloses the conversion ofdocosahexanoic acid containing phosphatidylcholines (DHA-PC) from squidskin lecithin to docosahexanoic acid containing phosphadylserines(DHA-PS) via transphosphatidylation with phospholipase D (PLD).According to Table 2 of this reference, the fatty acid composition ofthe phospholipid includes important portions of eicosapentanoic acid.There is no disclosure concerning any pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, orcosmetic use of a composition comprising a flavonoid.

Henderson et al. (36), published in 1994, discloses lipid compositionsof the pineal organ from rainbow trout comprising phospholipids.According to Table 4 of this reference, said phospholipids contain fattyacids corresponding to eicosapentanoic and docosahexanoic acid.Similarly, Bell et al. (37), published in 1991, discloses phospholipidcompositions derived from different organs of cod. Moreover, Wiegand etal. (38), published in 1983, discloses polyene derivatives ofphosphatidylcholine as phospholipid molecular species of frog receptormembranes. However, there is no disclosure in any of these referencesconcerning any pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, or cosmetic use of acomposition comprising a flavonoid.

WO 97/39759, published on Oct. 30, 1997, discloses ω-3 fatty acids andω-3 phosphatidylcholine in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Thepreferred ω-3 phosphatidylcholine derivatives comprise eicosapentanoicand/or docosahexanoic acid. However, there is no disclosure concerningany pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, or cosmetic use of phospholipidsbeyond the treatment of bipolar disorder or the use of a compositioncomprising a flavonoid.

EP 0609078 A1, published on Mar. 8, 1994, discloses a phospholipidcomprising two different unsaturated fatty acids, wherein a preferredphospholipid contains both eicosapentanoic and docosahexanoic acid.Furthermore, the phospholipid can be used in the preparation of foods,skin care preparations, or pharmaceutical agent. However, there is nodisclosure concerning any pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, or cosmetic useof a composition comprising a flavonoid.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the invention provides novel phospholipids, wherein thetwo fatty acids chains of the phospholipid are occupied byeicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) simultaneously,within the same molecule, i.e.: a phospholipid of the general formula(I):

wherein X represents a moiety normally found in a phospholipid.

According to a further aspect of the present invention there is provideda composition, comprising:

(a) a phospholipid of the general formula (I),

-   -   wherein X is —CH₂CH₂NH₃, —CH₂CH₂N(CH₃)₃ or

and

(b) a flavonoid of the general formula (II),

In a further aspect, the invention provides a novel flavonoid compound(II):

There is also provided a composition comprising the above notedphospholipid and flavonoid derived from a marine or aquatic biomass. Thecomposition and the components are useful in the prevention or treatmentof a variety of disease states and for the aesthetic enhancement of ananimal, including human, body. Commercial packages containing thecomposition are also within the invention.

The novel phospholipids and the novel flavonoid compound are derivedfrom an extract from a marine or aquatic biomass.

There is also provided a phospholipid extract comprising the above notedphospholipids and flavonoid compound derived from a marine or aquaticbiomass. The extract and the components are useful in the prevention ortreatment of a variety of disease states and for the aestheticenhancement of an animal, including human, body. Pharmaceutical,nutraceutical and cosmetic compositions containing the extract and usesthereof are also within the invention, as are commercial packagescontain the compositions of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 1. Phospholipids

Phospholipids are complex lipids containing phosphorus. Thephosphatides, known as phospholipids, are usually divided into groups onthe basis of compounds from which they are derived. In addition to twochains of fatty acids they contain phosphoric acid, glycerol andnitrogenous bases such as choline. Important phospholipids arephosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) andphosphatidylinositol (PI). Their nature as amphophilic moleculesprovides them with unique physicochemical properties. Their function asthe principle components of cell membranes makes phospholipids essentialfor all vital cell processes. They are wide spread as secretory andstructural components of the body and can mimic or enhance naturalphysiological process.

-   -   Phosphatidylcholine—common structure    -   R₁ and R₂ are fatty acid residues,    -   different for each molecular species

-   -   Phosphatidylethanolamine—common structure    -   R₁ and R₂ are fatty acid residues,    -   different for each molecular species

-   -   Phosphatidylinositol—common structure    -   R₁ and R₂ are fatty acid residues,    -   different for each molecular species

Phospholipid production may be either synthetic or through extractionfrom natural tissues. The chief source of commercial naturalphospholipids are soybean, egg yolk and cows (brain and liver). Since anindividual phospholipid may contain a variety of fatty acid residues, itmay be described as pure only with this limitation in mind. Naturallyoccurring essential polyunsaturated fatty acids can contribute to theactivation of cellular metabolism. The main fatty acid found inphospholipid products is linoleic acid (C18:2n6), present in soybean atmore than 65%. The longest chain polyunsaturated fatty acids found incommercially available phospholipids either as preparations orindividually are 20:4 among the eicosanoids, known as arachidonic acid,and 22:6 known as docosahexanoic acid.

Arachidonic acid is a fatty acid that is found as part of phospholipidmembranes, generally as part of phosphatidylcholine andphosphatidylinositol. Adverse cellular stimuli will activate enzymes(phospholipase) that cleave arachidonic acid from the phospholipidbackbone in the cell membrane. Arachidonic acid, which serves as theprecursor for prostaglandins and prostacyclin (PGs, PGI₂) andthromboxane (TXs), can then be metabolized by one of two major pathways:the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway or the lipoxygenase pathway. The COXpathway products, PGG₂ and PGH₂, can then be acted upon by thromboxanesynthase (in platelets) or prostacyclin synthase (in endothelium) toform TXs or PGI₂, respectively. Arachidonic acid can also be acted uponby 5-lipoxygenase, primarily in leukocytes, to form leukotrienes (LTs).One or more of these metabolites can mediate all the signs and symptomsassociated with arachidonic acid, i.e. inflammatory disease and pain.

Platelets, leukocytes, smooth muscle, and endothelium can producevasoactive substances, products of arachidonic acid metabolism such asprostaglandins (PGs), prostacyclin (PGI₂), leukotrienes (LTs), andthromboxanes (TXs). These substances can either act as vasodilators oras vasoconstrictors. PGI₂ is essential in vascular function since itinhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium and hassignificant vasodilatation qualities. Damaged endothelial cells cannotproduce PGI₂, making the vessel more susceptible to thrombosis andvasospasm. Thromboxanes and leukotrienes serve a vascular functionduring inflammation, generally producing vasoconstriction.Prostaglandins have a vascular role during inflammation, and also play amore subtle role in normal flow regulation, most notably as modulatorsof other control mechanisms. Prostaglandins have both vasoconstrictorand vasodilator activities. Leukotrienes and prostaglandins can alsoincrease the endothelial membrane permeability thus promoting edemaduring inflammation. Arachidonic acid is naturally present in mostphospholipid mixtures or emulsions available today.

Nervonic acid (C24:1) is also called selacholeic acid or tertracosenicacid. Nervonic acid is the predominant nutrient of white matter inglucoside, which is quantitatively contained in nerve tissue and whitematter. The absence of nervonic acid may result in cerebral lesion,fatigue, hypodynamia, amentia, and senile dementia. Nervonic acid,tertracosenic acid in another name, is monounsaturated,non-oxidable/decomposed and absorptive. It is called a rare tonic as itis rare existent in nature. It may be obtained in small quantities byextracting from cerebral chrondriosome. Therefore, the substantance isfar below the demand of human body. In foreign countries, nervonic acidmainly comes from shark brain and oil.

1.1 Phosphatidylinositol Clinical Applications

Recent advances in nutritional and biochemical research have documentedinositol as an important dietary and cellular constituent. Functions ofphosphatidylinositol in biological membranes include the regulation ofcellular responses to external stimuli and/or nerve transmission as wellas the mediation of enzyme activity through interactions with variousspecific proteins (1).

Inositol has been identified as an important dietary and cellularconstituent. Biochemical functions:

a. Regulation of cellular responses to external stimuli

b. mediation of enzyme activity.

Phosphoinositide composition of the central nervous system cellmembranes are fatty-acid enriched and consist primarily ofphosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PIP), andphosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate (PIP2). Once the membrane isstimulated, phospholipase C is activated and consequently inositoltriphosphate along with diacylglycerol is produced. PI is used as aprecursor for phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate and 3,4,5-triphosphate(2).

Active transport carriers, calcium pumps in the cell membrane itself,and in the endoplasmic reticulum, keep cytoplasmic calcium concentrationvery low. Usually the calcium concentration inside the cytoplasm is5,000-10,000 times less than the concentration in the extracellularfluid. This endoplasmic store of calcium can be accessed uponstimulation by inositol. Inositol triphosphate is released from the cellmembrane and travels through the cytoplasm until it reaches theendoplasmic reticulum. This inositol then releases the sequesteredcalcium, which can go on to mediate the release of neurotransmitters inresponse to depolarization (3).

In addition to releasing endoplasmic reticulum calcium, inositolfunctions as the major central nervous system non-nitrogenousosmoregulator. Modulation of this inositol pool is regulated in responseto states of high or low osmolalities. The inositol pool is supplied viaa sodium/inositol transporter, a sodium dependent active transportsystem, and a passive low affinity transporter (4,5).

Numerous non-inositol receptors have been identified in the centralnervous system that can potentially interact with the inositol signalingsystem. Most of these receptors are linked to the G proteins and produceinositol-1,4,5-triphosphate as second messengers. These receptors can befound in nearly every human organ system. The potential interactionsbetween these receptors and their agonists are responsible forregulation of the body on a day-to-day basis. In view of the complexityof these systems and their actions, a perfect balance is required forregulation of the signaling systems.

Theoretically, an imbalance of inositol concentration could potentiallyaffect the development and function of one or all of these receptors.Cholinergic receptors are located in the liver, heart, stomach, andlungs. Serotonin and glutamine receptors are found mostly in the centralnervous system (CNS) tissues. Adrenergic receptors are present invarious tissues including CNS, vascular tissues, and heart.Histaminergic receptors are predominantly found in the lungs andstomach.

Clinical Applications

A change in CNS availability of inositol may produce altered brainsignaling and eventually lead to the development of neurologicaldisorders.

a. Depression:

The pathophysiology of depression is believed to be linked to adeficiency of neurotransmitters at post-synaptic receptor sites.According to the catecholamine theory, the deficiency is in the amountof norepinephrine; in the indolamine theory the deficiency is in theamount of serotonin. Receptors linked to the inositol signalling systeminclude serotonin (5HT2a and 5HT2b) and norepinephrine (alpha 1a, 1b,and 1d).

In 1978, Barkai et al demonstrated depressed patients had significantlydecreased cerebospinal fluid (CSF) levels of inositol as compared tohealthy patients (6). In 1993 this theory was expanded to conclude thatadministration of high-dose inositol could increase CSF levels by asmuch as 70 percent (7). This led to the study of inositol for treatmentof depression (8,9). In 1995 Levine et al completed a double-blind studyfor treatment of depression using inositol at a dose of 12 grams dailycompared to placebo. Patients receiving inositol showed significantimprovement in depression as ranked by the Hamilton Depression RatingScale (33.4+/−6 versus 0.6+/−10). Another important observation was theabsence of manic episodes in the bipolar patients treated with inositol.This lack of manic episodes may suggest that when the signalling systemis not overactive, addition of inositol will not increase the signallingsystem's activity (10,11). It can be concluded that inositol iseffective in managing the clinical manifestations of depression.

b. Panic Disorder:

Benjamin et al expanded the clinical use of inositol by evaluating itseffectiveness in panic disorder (12). This was an eight weekdouble-blind, crossover study whereby patients were treated withinositol daily for four weeks and then crossed over to the other studyarm. Improvement was assessed using patient diaries, the Marks-MatthewsPhobia Scale, the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, and the HamiltonDepression Scale. The frequency and severity of panic attacks and theseverity of agoraphobia declined significantly more after inositol thanafter placebo (a decrease from 10 attacks per week to 3 per week in thetreated group compared to a decrease from 10 to 6 in the placebo group).The authors conclude inositol's efficacy and safety, and the fact thatinositol is a natural component of the human diet, make it a potentiallyattractive therapeutic agent for panic disorder.

c. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD):

Since the phosphatidylinositol cycle, as a second messenger is known toaffect several neurotransmitters, including serotonin receptors,inositol was studied for treatment in OCD in a double-blind, placebocontrolled, crossover trial. Thirteen patients were treated for sixweeks. There was a significant improvement at week six during theinositol period when compared to placebo period. There were noside-effects reported during the study period (1).

d. Alzheimer's Disease (AD):

Although the role of aluminum in AD is still speculative at best, thepresence of aluminosilicates at the core of senile plaques in diseasedneurons is a consistent feature found in the CNS of AD patients duringautopsy. It is known that aluminum inhibits the incorporation ofinositol into phospholipids and the hydrolysis of the phosphoinositidesby binding to one of two specific phosphate groups. This binding ofphosphate and aluminum affects the calcium releasing effects of thecell. The resulting profound disturbance of the phosphatidylinositolsecond messenger system may account for neuronal malfunction andeventual cell death (13).

Since the potential role of aluminum as a causative agent for cell deathmay be affected by the deregulation of calcium concentration, possiblydue to inositol depletion, supplementation with inositol may producepositive CNS effects. Recent data suggests the loss of PI secondmessenger system target sites and IP3 receptors may add to cognitiveimpairment and the failure of conventional therapies in AD. Therefore,supplementation of inositol to replenish the diminished PI system may bebeneficial in the treatment of AD (13-20).

In 1996 Barak et al completed a double-blind, controlled, crossoverstudy of six grams inositol daily compared to placebo for 30 days in 11Alzheimer's patients. Patients in the study were diagnosed with dementiaof the AD type as classified by DSM-IIIR and aged 65 years or older. TheCambridge Mental Disorder of the Elderly Examination (CAMDEX) was usedas the basic assessment parameter and was administered upon admissioninto the study. Included in CAMDEX is part A: patient's present physicaland mental state, part B: Cognitive Subscale of CAMDEX (CAMCOG), part C:interviewers observations, and part D: physical examination. CAMCOG wasrepeated at two, four, six, and eight weeks. Participants scored 80 orless on the CAMCOG examination and their symptoms of depression were notsevere (21).

Patients were excluded from the study if they had a history ofpsychiatric, alcohol, and/or drug addiction disorders, or abnormalitiesin baseline laboratory values (blood count, electrolytes, liver orkidney functions, VDRL, or CT scan) not consistent with AD. Patientswith additional neurologic, metabolic, endocrinologic disorders, orpresence of internal disease that grossly impaired brain functioningwere also excluded.

Subjects were given either three grams inositol or placebo in themorning and again in the evening. After four weeks patients were crossedover into the other arm (inositol or placebo) for an additional fourweeks. Only benzodiazepines were allowed during the study period (15 mgof oxazepam or equivalent), provided the patient was receiving it onstudy entry.

Analysis of the improvement scores of all patients who completed thestudy showed inositol increased the total CAMCOG score from a baselineof 31.36+/−20.90 to 40.09+/−24.54, while the placebo group increasedfrom baseline of 35.9+/−25.96 to 39.27+/−25. The authors concluded onlytwo of the eight subscales (language and orientation) showed significantimprovement with inositol.

Inositol's proposed mechanism of action in the CNS does not includedirect manipulation with either pre- or post-receptors. However, it mayindirectly affect the relationship between receptor and agonist. Bymediating the physiochemical characteristics of the M1 pre-synapticreceptor (solubility, osmolality, etc.), inositol may alter the bindingsite and influence the signaling that occurs as a result.

1.2 Aging

Phosphatidylcholine rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids is indispensablefor cellular differentiation, proliferation and regeneration. Thephysiologic functions of these phospholipids are related to themorphology of the biological membranes, the incorporation of thesemolecules into membranes and thus the maintenance of intact cellmembranes.

The current study was designed to investigate the effects ofPolyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine on age-related hearing loss byevaluating its ability to preserve mitochondrial function, protectmitochondrial DNA from oxidative damage and preserve auditorysensitivity (22).

Harlan-Fischer 344 rats, 18-20 months of age, were used as theexperimental subjects.

The subjects were caged individually and maintained at 21 to 22° C. in a12:12 light-dark cycle b.

A dose of 300 mg/kg/day of Polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine wassupplemented to each subject, by adding it to the oral diet.

The animals were divided randomly into two groups (n=7 for each group).Group-1 served as the control, and group-2 as the experimental group.

At the onset of the study, Auditory Brainstem Responses were obtained tomeasure baseline hearing thresholds in all subjects.

Age-associated changes in hearing sensitivities were then recorded attwo-month intervals for six months.

In order to assess age-related changes in mitochondrial function,mitochondrial membrane potentials were studied using flow cytometry. Forthis purpose, peripheral blood was obtained from each subject at thebeginning and at the end of the protocol.

At the conclusion, the subjects were euthanized (according to NIHprotocol), and tissue samples were obtained from brain and cochlea(stria vascularis and auditory nerve) to study mitochondrial DNAdeletion associated with aging. This was achieved by amplifying thespecific common aging mitochondrial deletion by Polymerase ChainReaction. DNA quantification was performed. The data obtained for eachprotocol was compared between the two groups and analyzed using ANOVA.

The effects of Polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine on age-relatedhearing loss demonstrate a gradual age-associated decline in hearingsensitivities at all the frequencies tested (3, 6, 9, 12 and 18 kHz).

There was a statistically significant preservation of hearing noted inthe treated subjects at all frequencies, which was observed at four andsix months of treatment.

Overall, there was a continued decline in hearing in the controlsubjects and a statistically significant protective effect ofPolyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine on the experimental subjects(p<0.005).

Mitochondrial membrane potentials were recorded by flow cytometry as ameasure of the uptake of Rhodamine 123 by mitochondria.

The mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) in group-1 subjects measured 3190and 2100 at the beginning and end of the study, respectively.

This, approximately, 30% decline in membrane potential with time wasstatistically significant (p=0.003).

Conversely, the MFI in the experimental group remained essentiallyunchanged at 2990 from 3165 at the beginning of the study.

This difference between the control and treated groups was statisticallysignificant (p<0.05), demonstrating the protective effect ofpolyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine supplementation on mitochondrialmembrane potential.

Phospholipids are integral structural components of all biologicalmembranes with polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine andphosphatidylethanolamine being the predominant types, quantitatively.They constitute the phospholipid bilayer structure of cellularmembranes, which is responsible for membrane stability and cellularfunction. Polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine maintains and promotes theactivity of several membrane bound proteins and enzymes, including Na—KATPase, adenylate cyclase and glutathione reductase. They are also knownto be precursors of cytoprotective agents such as eicosanoids,prostaglandins and antioxidants.

The results of these studies suggest that polyunsaturatedphosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine may protectmitochondrial function by preserving the age-related decline inmitochondrial membrane potentials and hence their activity. Theobservation that there was less mitochondrial DNA damage in the treatedgroup may explain the effect of preservation of hearing loss associatedwith aging, by the ability of polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine andphosphatidylethanolamine to specifically up-regulate cochlearmitochondrial function. There are many studies demonstrating the effectsof mitochondrial metabolites on cognition and aging (22-33).Additionally, recent work has shown that acetyl-L-carnitine and -lipoicacid delay the progression of age-related hearing loss by protectingcochlear mitochondrial DNA from oxidative damage (34). These resultssupport the membrane hypothesis of aging and provide further evidence tosupport this theory as a possible explanation for age-related hearingloss. Thus, PPC may be one of many rational approaches to consider forthe purpose of membrane preservation, enhanced mitochondrial function,reduction of age-associated mitochondrial DNA damage and slowing of someof the aging processes.

1.3 Effect of Phosphoglycolipid Extract (NT Factor) on Normal andCancerous Cells

Reduced levels of phospholipids in normal cells can limit metabolicactivity and limit available energy. Phospholipids, as part of themembrane structure:

(a) maintain membrane integrity.

(b) regulate enzyme activities and membrane transport processes throughchanges in membrane fluidity (Spector 1981, 1985).

(c) Signal transduction utilizes phospatidylcholine andphosphatidylinositol for the production of diacyl-glycerol (DAG) byphospholipase C (Berridge 1989) and for the production of inositoltriphosphate (IP3) (Ranan 1990, Michell 1988, Margolis 1990).

(d) One of the choline phospholipids (1-alkyl-2acetyl-SN-glycerol-3-phosphocholine) is the substrate for the synthesisof platelet activating factor (Synder 1989).

(e) The arachidonic acid found as part of the structure of choline orinositol phospholipid is utilized for the production of prostaglandinand leukotriene (Nordoy 1990).

(f) The choline of phosphatidylcholine may be used in neural tissue forthe synthesis of acetylcholine (Blusztain 1987).

(g) Phosphoglycolipid improves cell maintenance and metabolic activityof normal cells.

(h) Phosphatidylcholine derivatives disrupt cancer cells atconcentrations that do not affect normal cells.

(i) Phosphatidylcholine is selectively cytotoxic to cancer cells invitro (Hoffman 1986, Harmann 1986, Berger 1984).

-   -   (i) Such compounds inhibit HL60 leukemic cells at a dosage that        has no effect on normal human marrow cells, the tissue from        which the leukemic cells are derived.    -   (ii) Normal cells were able to tolerate 4 times higher dosage        than the leukemic cells during 24 hours incubation with the        phospholipid preparation (Berdel 1986).    -   (iii) There was up to a 5-fold difference in sensitivity between        the normal and tumor cells with breast, ovarian, and lung cancer        cells, as well as with mesothelioma cells (Namba 1993).        1.4 Imaging

Polyunsaturated phospholipids are known to be important with regard tothe biological functions of essential fatty acids, for example,involving neural tissues such as the brain and retina. The NMR spectraof polyunsaturated bilayers are dramatically different from those ofless unsaturated phospholipid bilayers. MD simulations can aid ininterpreting the complex NMR spectra of polyunsaturated bilayers, inconjunction with electron density profiles determined from small-angleX-ray diffraction studies. This work clearly demonstrates preferredhelical and angle-iron conformations of the polyunsaturated chains inliquid-crystalline bilayers, which favor chain extension whilemaintaining bilayer flexibility. The presence of relatively long,extended fatty acyl chains may be important for solvating thehydrophobic surfaces of integral membrane proteins, such as rhodopsin.In addition, the polyallylic DHA chains have a tendency to adoptback-bended (hairpin-like) structures, which increase the interfacialarea per lipid. Finally, the material properties have been analyzed interms of the response of the bilayer to mechanical stress. Simulatedbilayers of phospholipids containing docosahexaenoic acid were lesssensitive to the applied surface tension than were saturatedphospholipids, possibly implying a decrease in membrane elasticity (areaelastic modulus, bending rigidity). The above features distinguishDHA-containing lipids from saturated or nonunsaturated lipids and may beimportant for their biological modes of action.

1.5 In Summary

The functions of the phospholipids are multiple and different for eachphospholipid:

(a) Sphingosine and carbohydrate containing lipids are mainlyconcentrated in nervous tissues.

(b) The hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts of the phospholipid moleculeallow them to function as emulsifying agents in order to maintain theproper colloidal state of protoplasm.

(c) Phospholipids aid the transport of triglycerides through the liver,especially during mobilization from adipose tissue.

(d) Phospholipids and their metabolites play an important role inintracellular signalling, for example via phosphatidylinositol specificphospholipase C, phospholipase D or phosphatidylinositol-kinases.

(e) Through their concentration in cell membranes they may somehow beinvolved in the transport of hydrophobic constituents into and out ofcells.

(f) Phospholipids affect brain function in two substantial ways: (CohenB. M., Babb S. M., Yurgelun-Todd D., et al. Brain choline uptake andcognitive function in middle age. Biol. Psych. 1997; 41:90 S.)

-   -   (i) The membranes of brain cells depend on phospholipids as part        of their structure. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is concentrated in        the cell membranes of the brain.    -   (ii) Phospholipids are required for the production of        neurotransmitters.    -   (iii) Choline is a component of the neurotransmitter        acetylcholine. Without adequate levels of acetylcholine, the        brain can't store or retrieve information efficiently.    -   (iv) Lower choline levels in the brain are an underlying factor        for age-related cognitive disorders.    -   (v) Patients submitted to increased choline uptake show        significant improvement in their ability to recall information        and perform on memory retention tests, suggesting a causal        relationship between poor choline status and cognition.

(g) Phosphatidylserine (PS) in Dementia-Related Diseases:

-   -   (i) Dementia is the deterioration of mental function,        particularly affecting memory, concentration, and judgment.    -   (ii) A frequent cause of dementia is Alzheimer's disease.    -   (iii) The first double-blind trial of PS for Alzheimer's disease        was published about a decade ago. (Delwaide P. J., et al.        Double-blind randomized controlled study of phosphatidylserine        in demented subjects. Acta Neur. Scand. 1986; 73:136-140.) In        this study, 35 Alzheimer's patients were either given a placebo        or 300 mg. per day of PS for six weeks. The PS group showed        significant improvement after this short-term supplementation        period.    -   (iv) More recently, a large double-blind study of 494 elderly        patients with symptoms of cognitive decline compared a placebo        to 300 mg. per day of PS for six months. (Cenacchi T., Bertoldin        T, Farina C., et al. Cognitive decline in the elderly: A        double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study on efficacy        of phosphatidylserine administration. Aging Clin. Exp. Res.        1993; 5:123-133.) Memory and learning of the PS-treated group        was significantly improved over the placebo group, as well as        certain emotional and behavior components of Alzheimer's        disease.    -   (v) Supplements of PS have also shown impressive results in        older populations with memory impairment unrelated to        Alzheimer's disease. (Crook T H., et al. Effects of        phosphatidylserine in age-associated memory impairment.        Neurology 1991; 41:644-649.) Three months of taking 300 mg. of        PS daily, in one study, reversed the decline of memory function        in a group of 149 patients. The memory function of these men and        women initially averaged that of a typical 64 years old. After        taking PS supplements, the average memory function was 52 years        old—a mental gain of 12 years.

(h) Restoring and Preserving Liver Function:

-   -   (i) While the phospholipid PS dominates in the mental function        arena, the phospholipid phosphatidylcholine (PC) is the major        player for liver health.    -   (ii) PC protects the liver against damage from alcoholism,        pharmaceuticals, pollutant substances, viruses, and other toxic        influences, most of which operate by damaging cell membranes.    -   (iii) Many of the studies using PC supplements to aid recovery        of the liver are based on 800 mg. per day (taken with meals).        (Kidd P. M. Phosphatidylcholine: A superior protectant against        liver damage. Alt. Med. Rev. 1996; 1:258-274.) Although PC is a        source of choline, studies reviewed by Dr. Kidd suggest that PC        is superior to choline; in fact choline in its pure form may be        detrimental to the liver's recovery from toxic overload (such as        in alcoholism). As a lipotropic, choline transports fats within        the body, while inadequate choline intake might result in an        unhealthy accumulation of fat in the liver. (Newberne P. M.,        Nauss K. M., and de Camargo J. L. Lipotropes, iunmunocompetence,        and cancer. Cancer Res. 1983; 43:2426 S-2434S.)

2. Flavonoids

Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds ubiqitous in nature. They arecategorized into isoflavones, anthocyanidins, flavans, flavonols,flavones, citrus flavonoids, hesperidin, chalcones, catechins, rutin,and flavanones. Essential flavonoids, such as quercetin in onions andgenistein in soy are actually considered subcategories rather thanindependent categories. Over 4,000 flavonoids have been identified infruits, vegetables and beverages (tea, coffee, beer, wine and fruitdrinks). Even though they have a similar molecular structure betweenthem, their functions are different from each other. Flavonoids havebeen shown to have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic,antimutagenic, antiviral, antineoplastic, anti-thrombotic, andvasodilatory activity. Quercetin has been proven to block the “sorbitolpathway” which is directly associated with diabetes as well as toprevent LDL-cholesterol oxidative damage, which is essential for themaintenance of a healthy cardiovascular system.

Flavonoids are found in a wide range of fruits and vegetables. Forexample, Quercetin (a flavonol in vegetables, fruit and onions),Xanthohumol (a prenylated chalcone in beer), Isoxanthohumol (aprenylated flavanone in beer), Genistein (an isoflavone in soy),Chalconaringenin (a non-prenylated chalcone in citrus fruits) andNaringenin (a non-prenylated flavanone in citrus fruits).

In plants flavonoids have very well defined functions. First, theaccumulation of pigment in flower petals, seeds and leafs. Flowers, aspollinators, must attract pollen carriers. Second, they protect plantsfrom UV damage, by absorbing UV at the epidermal layer. Third, theyprotect the plants against insects and pathogens.

The flavonoid biosynthetic pathway is one of the best understood plantsecondary metabolism pathways (1992, Gerats). The key enzymes arephenylalanine-ammonia lyase and chalcone synthase. Phenylalanine-ammonialyase converts phenylalanine into cinnamic acid as it controls the totalflow of carbons into phenolics which is shown to be the limiting step inthis pathway (1974, Creasy). Another key enzyme of the flavonoid pathwayis the chalcone synthase. It condenses three molecules of malonyl-CoAwith one molecule p-courmaroyl-CoA to form a C₁₅ intermediate,naringenin chalcone, with a R stereochemistry at the 2^(nd) carbon.Chalcone isomerase, transforms the intermediate into the first flavonoidof the pathway, 2S-flavonone (naringenin). This reaction is part of allmajor flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. Chalcone synthase and chalconeisomerase form a complex ensuring the right stereochemistry (1996,Lyster).

The structural components of flavonoids include two benzene rings oneither side of a 3-carbon ring. Different combinations of hydroxylgroups, sugars, oxygens, and methyl groups attached to these structurescreate the various categories of flavonoids mentioned above. Thecapacity of flavonoids to act as an antioxidant depends upon theirbiochemical structure, and more specifically, the position of thehydroxyl groups. Epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin gallate, luteolinand quercetin exhibit the highest antioxidant activity, followed byepigallocatechin, gallic acid, epicatechin, catechin, rutin, anddihydroquercetin. It is worth noting at this point that the onlydifference between quercetin or luteolin (the most potent) anddihydroquercetin (the least potent) is the double bond between thesecond (2^(nd)) and third (3^(rd)) carbons on the center (C) ring. Thepresence of this double bond significantly increases the antioxidantactivity of the flavonoid. Antioxidant activity can be increased withthe addition of another hydroxyl group on the B or C ring.

The potent antioxidant activity of flavonoids seems to be the mostimportant function of flavonoids, responsible for many of the abovementioned health benefits.

The flavonoids most recognised by scientists until today are:

Quercetin and Quercetin Chalcone

Quercetin chalcone, is quercetin with an opened C ring and the oxygenfound in the C-ring of quercetin converted into a hydroxyl group.Quercetin is mainly found in tea and even more in green tea.

Oligomeric Proanthocyanidins

Oligomeric proanthocyanindins are oligomeric flavonoids, usually dimersand trimers, based on the flavan-3-ol, or catechin, molecule, sometimesattached to gallic acid. They are found in the bark of pine trees, ingrape seeds and skins, in peanut skins, cranberries, tea, and othersources.

Ginkgo Biloba Extract

Ginkgo biloba extracts contain 24% ginkgo flavone glycosides and 6%terpenes. They are extracted from the eldest living tree species, GingoBiloba. Scientific research suggests that the beneficial constituents ofgingo biloba extracts are quercetin and myricetin.

Luteolin

Luteolin is a flavonoid found in the same foods as apigenin (vegetablesand fruits). Scientific research has shown that luteolin and quercetincan inhibit platelet activating factor and suppress the inflammatoryresponse induced by allergens.

Flavonoids have been studied for the last 60 years. Their antioxidantactivity is accepted as a scientific fact. Epidemiological, clinical,and laboratory research on flavonoids demonstrates the use of flavonoidsin the prevention and/or treatment of cardiovascular disease, cancer,inflammatory conditions, asthma, peridontal disease, liver disease,cataracts and macular degeneration. Until today there has never been aflavonoid extracted from anything other than a plant, vegetable, fruitor algae.

3. Preparation of Extracts

The phospholipid extract of the present invention may be extracted froma variety of marine or aquatic biomass sources. Preferred sources of thephospholipid composition are crustaceans, in particular, zooplankton. Aparticularly preferred zooplankton is Krill. Krill can be found in anymarine environment around the world. For example, the Antarctic Ocean(where the krill is Euphasia superba), the Pacific Ocean (where thekrill is Euphasia pacifica), the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean allcontain krill habitats. In particular, the coastal regions of MauritiusIsland and/or Reunion Island off Madagascar, the Canadian West Coast,the Japanese Coast, the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy arekrill habitats.

The phospholipid extract of the present invention is preferably aproduct of initial processing of the biomass. As such, the phospholipidsare extracted from the biomass grease as opposed to the oil, the oilbeing a product of subsequent processing steps of a biomass. Since thephospholipid extract is derived from the biomass grease, the viscosityof the phospholipid extract tends to be higher than extracts frombiomass oils. The extract has a very high natural stability with aperoxide value of zero or approaching zero and a good Oil StabilityIndex of less than about 0.2 Meq/kg after 20 or more hours. Table 1below details the stability of the extract.

TABLE 1 Stability indexes of the extract after 50 hours at 97.8° C.Peroxide value (mEq/kg) <0.1 Oil Stability Index (after 50 hours) at97.8° C. (mEq/kg) <0.1 Saponification Index 70-180 Iodine Index (%)60-130

Phospholipids are generally present in the extract in an amount of atleast 40% w/w, preferably at least 45% w/w. More preferably, the amountof phospholipid is from about 45-60% w/w. A variety of types ofphospholipids may be present in the extract. These includephosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine,phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin.

The phospholipid extract preferably further comprises a number of othercomponents. The extract may also comprise fatty acids, antioxidantsand/or metals.

Fatty acids found in the phospholipid extract may be saturated,monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fattyacids are particularly preferred, the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acidsbeing most preferred. In particular, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA),eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), myristic acid, myristoleic acid, lignocericacid, linolenic acid, alpha linolenic acid, nervonic acid, linoleicacid, oleic acid, stearic acid, palmitic acid and palmitoleic acid arepresent in significant quantities. Arachidonic acid content of theextract is generally very low to non-existent despite the presence ofphosphatidyl inositol and phosphatidyl serine. Other lipid componentsthat may be present in the extract include monoglycerides, triglyceridesand/or cholesterol.

Table 2 below details the fatty acid compositions of the phospholipidsof the extract.

TABLE 2 The fatty acid composition of the extract of the phospholipidsTotal PL PC PE Fatty Acids FA % FA % FA % C14:0 MYRISTIC 2.04 1.70 0.7C14:1 MYRISTOLEIC 1.22 C15:0 PENTADECANOIC 0.2 0.30 0.3 C16:0 PALMITIC24.08 26.50 23.9 C16:1 PALMITOLEIC 2.24 2.30 0.7 C18:0 STEARIC 1.02 1.302.9 C18:1 OLEIC 9.18 11.90 24.1 C18:2n6 LINOLEIC 1.63 2.30 0.8 C18:3n6GLA 1.02 0.30 C18:3n3 ALA 1.02 1.30 C18:4n3 OTA 1.84 2.00 0.3 C20:0ARACHIDIC C20:1 cis-11-EICOSENOIC 0.41 0.60 0.7 C20:2n6 EICOSADIENOICC20:3n6 METHYL ETA 0.20 C20:4n6 ARACHIDONIC 0.61 0.70 0.6 C20:3n3Homo-γ-LINOLENIC C20:4n3 C20:5n3 EPA 27.35 31.90 12.9 C22:0 BEHENICC22:1 ERUCIC 1.22 1.50 C22:2n6 C22:4n6 C22:5n6 METHYL DPA C22:5n3 DPA1.00 C22:6n3 DHA 24.9 14.20 32.1 C24:0 LIGNOCERIC C24:1 NERVONIC Total100.0 100 100

Compared to phospholipids existing in the market today, the extractphospholipids:

(a) achieve a superior profile;

(b) have the highest quantities of polyunsaturated fatty acids;

(c) have the highest quantities of DHA;

(d) are the only phospholipids that contain EPA; and

(e) are the only phospholipids that contain a combination of EPA and DHAon the same molecule.

PL=phospholipid

FA=fatty acid

PC=phosphatidylcholine

PE=phosphatidylethanolamine

Free fatty acids are present in the extract in an amount of at least 4%w/w and preferably at least 5% w/w. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inparticular omega-3 fatty acids, preferably make up at least 15% w/w,more preferably at least 40% w/w, and even more preferably at least 45%w/w, of the total lipids in the extract. DHA and EPA are generally thelargest component of the fatty acids and preferably account for at least32% w/w, more preferably at least 35% or 37%, of the total lipid contentof the extract.

Table 3 below details the fatty acid composition of the total lipids ofthe extract.

TABLE 3 Fatty acid composition of total lipids of the extract SampleFatty Acid Composition % C14:0 ≧3.00 C14:1 ≧0.01 C15:0 ≧0.3 C16:0 ≧20.00C16:1 ≧3.25 C18:0 ≧1.00 C18:1 ≧10.00 C18:2n6 ≧2.00 C18:3n6 GLA ≧0.04C18:3n3 ALA ≧0.01 C18:4n3 ≧1.50 C20:0 ≧0.05 C20:1 ≧1.00 C20:2n6 ≧0.05C20:3n6 ≧0.05 C20:4n6 ≦0.50 C20:3n3 ≧0.01 C20:4n3 ≧0.20 C20:5n3 EPA≧25.00 C22:0 ≧0.01 C22:1 ≧1.50 C22:2n6 ≧0.03 C22:4n6 ≧0.01 C22:5n6 ≧0.01C22:5n3 DPA ≧0.50 C22:6n3 DHA ≧10.00 C24:0 ≧0.01 C24:1 ≧0.05

Table 4 below also details the fatty acid composition of the totallipids of the extract.

TABLE 4 Fatty acid composition of total lipids of the extract Saturated(g/100 g lipid) ≧22.00 Monounsaturated (g/100 g lipid) ≧11.00Polyunsaturated (g/100 g lipid) ≧35.00 Omega-3 (g/100 g lipid) ≧30.00Omega-6 (g/100 g lipid) ≧1.00

Antioxidants present in the extract may include vitamin A (for example,all-trans retinol), vitamin E (for example, alpha-tocopherol),beta-carotene, astaxanthin (mainly esterified but non-esterified may bepresent), canthaxanthin and/or flavonoids. Antioxidants are preferablypresent in the extract in an amount of at least 20 and preferably atleast 200 mg/100 ml.

Table 5 below details the lipids and other compounds (non-metal) of theextract.

TABLE 5 Lipid composition, vitamins A and E, pigments and flavonoids ofthe extract Monoglycerides (MG) (g/100 g sample) ≧0.7 Triglycerides (TG)(g/100 g sample) ≧3.00 Free Fatty Acids (FFA) (g/100 g sample) ≧5.00Cholesterol (g/100 g sample) ≦2.00 Total Phospholipids (PL) (g/100 gsample) ≧40.00 Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (PE) (g/100 g sample) ≧2.50Phosphatidyl Inositol (PI) (g/100 g sample) ≧0.20 Phosphatidyl Serine(PS) (g/100 g sample) ≧0.20 Phosphatidyl Choline (PC) (g/100 g sample)≧35.00 Sphingomyelin (g/100 g sample) ≧0.50 Vitamin A (μg/100 ml) ≧1,400Vitamin E (μg/100 ml) ≧15 Beta-Carotene (μg/100 ml) ≧1,600 Astaxanthin(mg/100 ml) ≧10 Canthaxanthin (mg/100 ml) ≧10 Flavonoid (mg/100 ml) ≧7.0

The metals present in the extract are preferably zinc and selenium. Zincis preferably present in an amount of at least 0.05 mg/100 g of extractwhile selenium is generally present in an amount of less than 3 mg/100 gof extract.

Table 6 below details the metals content of the extract.

TABLE 6 Metal composition and solvent residue of the extract mixtureZinc (mg/100 g) >0.1 Selenium (mg/100 g) <2 Solvent residue <25 ppm

Table 7 below details the physiochemical characteristics of the extract.

TABLE 7 Physiochemical characteristics of the extract Color RedViscosity (cPs) <1300 Odor Fish

Extraction of the phospholipid composition from the biomass is generallycarried out by a method similar to the one described in commonly ownedPCT publication number WO 00/23546, published on Apr. 27, 2000, thedisclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. The extractionis generally carried out by successive acetone and alcohol treatments.For the extraction of the instant application, the preferred treatmentinvolves the use of >60% acetone in the first extraction followed byextraction with a mixture of organic solvents at 65-95%/45-50%preferably acetone, ethyl acetate/ethanol mixture. The most preferredextraction solvent system is 100% acetone in the first extractionfollowed with a 95%/5% ethyl acetate/ethanol mixture. However, otherketones can also be used in combination with or in place of acetone. Thealcohol can be other than ethanol, e.g., isopropanol or t-butanol. Theacetate may also vary. Further, the ratio of alcohol to acetate may varywidely from 100:0 to 0:100. The procedure produces two successive lipidfractions and a dry residue enriched in protein, including activeenzymes.

Preferably, freshly harvested and finely divided marine and aquaticanimal material is subjected to acetone extraction, for at least abouttwo hours and preferably overnight. However, extraction time is notcritical to the yield of lipid extracted. Particle sizes of comminutedcrustacean less than 5 mm are preferred. The extraction is preferablyconducted under an inert atmosphere and at a temperature of about 5degrees Celsius or less. The mixture may be agitated during extractionand a volume ratio of about 6:1 of acetone to biomass is generally mostpreferred.

The solubilized lipid fraction is separated from the solid startingmaterial by known techniques, for example, by filtration, centrifugationor sedimentation. Filtration is preferred. The residue is optionallywashed with acetone to recover more lipid and the acetone removed byflash evaporation or spray drying. Water residue is allowed to separatefrom the lipid extract at low temperature.

The solid residue left on the filter from the initial extraction issuspended and extracted with 95/5 ethyl acetate/ethanol, preferably twovolumes (original volume of material). The filtrate is evaporatedyielding a second fraction of lipids. Extraction period is not criticalalthough it is preferred to extract for about 30 minutes at atemperature below about 5 degrees Celsius.

Each phospholipid is subdivided into multiple categories depending onthe fatty acids that are attached to the molecule. The biologicalactivity, bioavailability as well as the value of phospholipids isdetermined by the purity and the source:

(a) Purity:

-   -   (i) Optimal purity of the phospholipid or flavonoid of the        invention is at least 99% by weight. The purity of the        phospholipid or flavonoid after extraction from the krill may        vary, but will normally be in the range of at least 90% to 100%        of the/or mixture of phospholipid compound(s). Usually, the        purity will be at least 95%. Preferably, the purity will be at        least 96%, 97% or 98%. More preferably, the purity will be at        least 99.5%. Most preferably, the purity will be at least 99.9%.        By “purity” is meant that the phospholipid or flavonoid of the        invention is isolated from other phospholipids, flavonoids, or        components of the extract, to the weight percent specified.        Isolation may be performed by e.g. HPLC. For example, a        phospholipid that is 99% pure, contains less than 1% by weight        of any material other than the specified phospholipid.    -   (ii) Higher bioavailibility and efficacy is achieved with higher        purity.    -   (iii) Phospholipid market value is directly analogous to the        purity achieved for the final product.

(b) Source and fatty acid content:

-   -   (i) The types of fatty acids attached to the phospholipid is        widely dependent upon the source.    -   (ii) Plant source phospholipids contain mainly palmitic acid        (16:0), stearic acid (18:0), vaccenic acid (18:1), linoleic acid        (18:2) or alpha-linoleic acid (18:3).    -   (iii) Animal source phospholipids contain a higher percentage of        longer-chain fatty acids with higher degree of unsaturation like        homo-gamma-linoleic acid (20:3), arachidonic acid (20:4),        behenic acid (22:0) and docosahexanoic acid-DHA (22:6).    -   (iv) Neptune Krill Oil™ (the present invention) phospholipids        contain high quantities of eicosapentanoic acid-EPA (20:5) and        docosahexanoic acid-DHA (22:6). Their fatty acid profile closely        resembles that of human brain phospholipids.    -   (v) The efficacy in human health and the value of phospholipids        increases directly analogous to the length of the fatty acid        chain and the degree of unsaturation. Therefore, phospholipids        with more polyunsaturated fatty acids attached to them are more        efficacious and of higher value.    -   (vi) Arachidonic acid, although polyunsaturated, has been proven        to predispose to inflammatory disease. Hence, moderate        quantities are preferred.    -   (vii) DHA and EPA are the two most active polyunsaturated fatty        acids in the human body, contributing to all health benefits        associated with omega-3 fatty acids.    -   (viii) The highest quantities of polyunsaturated fatty acids        contained in the phospholipids in the market today are:

a. Arachidonic acid: 30.1%

b. Homo-gamma-linolenic acid: 9.0%

c. DHA: 8.4%

4. Pharmaceutical, Nutraceutical and Cosmetic Compositions

The phospholipid extract of the present invention may be used with orwithout other additives. Preferably, no other additives are used.However, if other additives are used, pharmaceutical or nutraceuticalformulations may be made by methods known in the art. For example, thecompositions of the present invention may be formulated in aconventional manner using one or more pharmaceutically ornutraceutically acceptable carriers. Thus, the extract may be formulatedfor oral administration. For oral administration, the pharmaceutical ornutraceutical compositions may take the form of, for example, tablets orcapsules prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically ornutraceutically acceptable excipients such as binding agents (e.g.,pregelatinised maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone or hydroxypropylmethylcellulose); filters (e.g., lactose, microcrystalline cellulose orcalcium phosphate); lubricants (e.g., magnesium stearate, talc orsilica); disintegrants (e.g., potato starch or sodium starchglycollate); or wetting agents (e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate). Thetablets may be coated by methods well known in the art. Liquidpreparations for oral administration may take the form of, for example,solutions, syrups or suspensions, or they may be presented as a dryproduct for constitution with water or other suitable vehicle beforeuse. Such liquid preparations may be prepared by conventional means withpharmaceutically or nutraceutically acceptable additives such assuspending agents (e.g., sorbitol syrup, methyl cellulose orhydrogenated edible fats); emulsifying agents (e.g., lecithin oracacia); non-aqueous vehicles (e.g., almond oil, oily esters or ethylalcohol); and preservatives (e.g., methyl or propyl p-hydroxybenzoatesor sorbic acid).

When the phospholipid extract of the inventions is used as anutraceutical, it can be in the form of foods, beverages, energy bars,sports drinks, supplements or other forms all as are known in the art.

As noted above, the phospholipid extract of the invention is also usefulin cosmetic preparations, e.g., moisturizing creams, sun-block productsand other topical cosmetic products as known in the art.

The phospholipid extract of the present invention may be used in thetreatment or prevention of a variety of disease states including: liverdisease; chronic hepatitis; steatosis; liver fibrosis; alcoholism;malnutrition; chronic parenteral nutrition; phospholipid deficiency;lipid peroxidation; disarrhythmia of cell regeneration; destabilizationof cell membranes; coronary artery disease caused byhypercholesterolemia; high blood pressure; menopausal or post-menopausalconditions; cancer, e.g., skin cancer; hypertension; aging; benignprostatic hyperplasia; kidney disease; edema; skin diseases;gastrointestinal diseases; peripheral vascular system diseases (e.g. legulcers); pregnancy toxemia; and neurodegenerative and psychiatricdiseases (e.g. Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, autism, attention deficitdisorder, learning disorders, mood disorders, bipolar depression,multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy).

The extracts are also useful for targeting tumors and can be used inconjunction with radioisotopes for diagnosing central nervous systemtumors. The extract can also be used to reduce local fat deposits andreducing visible cellulite. The extract can also be used in aestheticssuch as breast enlargement by acting on the lobular tissue of the breastand by increasing hydration of the breast.

As noted above, the present invention provides novel phospholipidsderived from a marine or aquatic biomass. The novel phospholipids havethe general formula (I):

wherein X represents a moiety normally found in phospholipids, e.g.,—CH₂CH₂N(CH₃)₃, CH₂CH₂NH₃ or

for phophatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine orphosphatidylinositol, respectively.

The left hand acid residue is derived from docosahexanoic acid (DHA)[C22:6n3]. The right hand acid residue is derived from eicosapentaenoicacid (EPA) [C20:5n3].

These novel phospholipids have all of the uses noted above forphospholipids in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmeticcompositions.

As noted above, the present invention also provides a novel flavonoidcompound derived from a marine or aquatic biomass. The novel flavonoidcompound has the formula (II):

The novel flavonoid is an antioxidant and thus is useful in thepharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic compositions of theinvention.

As used herein and in the claims, where the term “about” is used with anumerical value, the numerical value may vary by at least ±50%.Preferably, the variation will be ±40% or ±30% and more preferably ±20%or ±10%. Even more preferred variations are in the range ±5%, ±4%, ±3%or ±2%. Most preferably, the variation is in the range of ±1%.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1 to 3 are chromatograms of the product of Example 1.

FIG. 4 is a mass spectrograph for characterizing the novel flavonoidcompound (II).

The invention is further illustrated by the following non-limitingexamples.

The extraction of the phospholipids for Example 1 was as described abovefor krill extractions.

EXAMPLES Materials and Methods

For analysis of lipids, samples were dissolved in solvent and standardswere added. Lipid classes were isolated using silica gel and quantified.Fatty acid composition of total lipids and individual phospholipids wasdetermined by gas chromatography. Pigments were measured by reversedphase high performance liquid chromatography.

Example 1

This example illustrates the isolation and molecular characterization ofthe phospholipids from the extract.

Sample #804 Molecular Species Determination

The sample contains large amounts of phospholipids, mainly:

PC (438.48 mg/g lipid)

PE (183.15 mg/g lipid)

Preliminary results were obtained only for these two phospholipidfractions.

Methods

Separation of Main Phospholipid Fractions

To obtain large quantities of PC and PE, separation was done by ThinLayer Chromatography (TLC) and bands identity was confirmed by HPLC.

Diacylglycerol Formation

Both fractions (PC and PE) were incubated with phospholipase C, theenzyme which removes choline phosphate from PC and ethanolaminephosphate from PE. The remaining diacylglycerols were extracted withethyl ether.

Benzoate Derivatization

Each mixture of diacylglycerols needed to be derivatized (using benzoicanhydride and 4-dimethyl-aminopyridine) to make further separationpossible. In a parallel experiment, derivatization was done for threestandard authentic diacylglycerols, dilinolein, diolein and dipalmitin.

Subclass Separation

A preliminary separation of diacylglycerols derivatives into subclasseswas done by TLC. Diacylglycerol derivatives obtained from PC and from PEseparated into two major bands (#3 and #4). Additional bands #2 werealso visible very close to the start. Only bands #3 and #4 wereprocessed further because their localization corresponded to thelocalization of main band #2 obtained for a mixture of standards(benzoate derivatives of dilinolein, diolein and dipalmitin).

Example TLC Plate Separation

#3 #2 #4 (Rf = 0.37) #4 (Rf = 0.37) #3 (Rf = 0.25) #3 (Rf = 0.25) #2 #2Start Start Start Std Mix PC PEHPLC Fractionation

Bands #3 and #4 obtained for PC and PE were eluted and further separatedinto individual diacylglyercol species by HPLC. To confirm a number ofpeaks for the subsequent GC analysis, each peak was collected andseparately re-run on HPLC.

Number of Confirmed Peaks:

For PC band #3, nine peaks were identified and confirmed.

For PC band #4, nine peaks were identified and confirmed.

For PE band #3, eight peaks were identified and confirmed.

For PE band #4, eight peaks were identified and confirmed.

See FIG. 1.

Hydrolysis, Methyl Ester Derivatization and GC Analysis

For both PC and PE, all confirmed peaks obtained from HPLC separation ofband #3 were hydrolized and fatty acid profiles were determined by GCafter conversion into methyl esters. Peak identity was assessed by massspectrometry. Fatty acid profiles were compared to those obtained forintact PC and PE fractions subjected to hydrolysis and methylation.

Results

The peak surface areas calculated for fatty acid molecular species inselected fractions are summarized in Table 8. The peak fatty acid areasfor intact PC and PE fraction are in Table 9. The representative GasChromatography profiles for an individual fraction and for intactphospholipid (PC) are presented in Table 10.

The Gas Chromatography profiles obtained for individual peaks were onlypartly consistent with profiles obtained for intact PC. They containedonly 5-6 major peaks while Gas Chromatography profiles of intactphospholipids consist of much higher number of peaks. Among the 5-6peaks consistently found in molecular species profiles, only two hadidentity confirmed by mass spectrometry (C16:0 and C18:0). Among theremaining three peaks, one did not correspond to any fatty acid and twohad retention times identical to those of authentic omega-3 fatty acids,EPA and DHA.

The C16:0 peak was prominent in all individual molecular speciesprofiles and was also prominent in the intact phospholipid fractions.For the C18:0 peak, its proportions found in individual peaks wererelatively high. Oleic acid (C18:1) was found at high levels in both PCand PE fatty acid profile.

TABLE 8 Molecular species peak areas obtained for selected fractions.Fraction C16:0 C18:0 EPA RT 48.33 DHA PC band #3 F1 205.27 57.79 42.76103.83 62.07 PC band #3 F2 21.39 8.87 0 71.96 7.11 PC band #3 F3 58.7417.70 0 45.64 14.75 PC band #3 F4 93.41 9.72 0 44.31 9.19 PC band #3 F519.87 9.67 4.56 46.89 3.96 PC band #3 F6 15.26 10.34 12.45 59.86 14.29PC band #3 F7 28.32 10.93 30.70 56.83 25.12 PC band #3 F8 6.39 4.49 084.24 11.89 PC band #3 F9 14.65 8.21 8.60 58.95 28.22 PE band #3 F2 4.5010.79 0 77.68 9.19 PE band #3 F3 26.85 22.14 14.45 49.62 21.76 PE band#3 F4 13.08 22.45 28.70 62.11 29.43 PE band #3 F5 22.42 20.34 11.06100.79 30.61 PE band #3 F6 3.05 6.13 4.93 54.88 7.28

TABLE 9 Selected fatty acid peak areas of intact PC and PE Un- iden-C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 EPA tified DHA Reten- 15.80 21.66 22.36 + 22.63 39.6848.34 53.59 tion time PC 1141.36 35.75 257.99 642.50 68.61 192.22 PE166.43 20.45 87.75 59.77 110.27 109.63

See FIG. 2

TABLE 10 The representative GC profiles for an individual fraction andfor intact phospholipid (PE) CH PKNO TIME AREA HEIGHT MK IDNO CONC 1 50.826 17654310 1368301 E 21.8397 13 2.637 11027760 1352920 E 13.6422 142.916 2167386 203115 E 2.6812 15 3.15 597812 87264 V 0.7395 22 4.408667991 60799 V 0.8264 29 7.063 7293939 290768 9.0231 30 8.397 14448913997 0.1787 32 9.933 32467398 1384059 E 40.1646 33 10.252 8166303661493 V 10.1023 43 14.451 348072 20030 0.4306 44 14.813 102126 99750.1263 45 15.12 198366 21561 0.2454 TOTAL 80835952 5474282 100

See FIG. 3

Example 2 UVB-Induced Skin Cancer

Objectives

To evaluate the photoprotective potential of krill extract againstUVB-induced skin cancer.

Study Design

Randomized control trial

Statistical significance p<0.05

Study Phase

Pre-clinical

Experimental Animals

Type: Nude Mice

Strain: C57BL6 Nude Congenic Mice—B6NU-T (heterozygotes) (Preference ofspecific type because of proven susceptibility to skin cancer).

Study Protocol

Number of nude mice=96

Randomization groups:

-   -   48 placebo:        -   16 per os        -   16 local application        -   16 per os and local application    -   48 krill extract:        -   16 per os        -   16 local application        -   16 per os and local application

In order to establish efficacy of krill extract for the prevention ofskin cancer, the test was conducted as a randomized double blindcontrolled trial (both the pathologist and the research assistant wereblind). Half of the mice were treated orally or topically or both withextract containing 100% by weight of krill extract and the other halfunderwent the same method of treatment with a placebo. The groups weredivided as follows:

Nutrition: Week 1: fat-free chow

Week 2-20: according to group

Experimental Design:

The mice were divided in six groups as follows:

Group A: fat-free chow with supplementation of soy extract (20% of totalcalories)

Group B: fat-free chow (100% of calories)+local application of soyextract 2 times per day

Group C: fat-free chow with supplementation of soy extract (20% of totalcalories)+local application of soy extract 2 times per day

Group D: fat-free chow with supplementation of krill extract (20% oftotal calories)

Group E: fat-free chow (100% of calories)+local application of krillextract 2 times per day

Group F: fat-free chow with supplementation of krill extract (20% oftotal calories)+local application of krill extract 2 times per day

Week 2-20: UVB radiation using a fluorescent test lamp, emissionspectrum 270-400 nm.

Week 3-20: liquid from blisters formed is examined for PGE2 levels

Week 3-20: mice are anaesthetized with ether and sacrificed whenmalignant tumours have formed or at the end of the 20 weeks.

Skin is examined by pathologist for signs of carcinogenesis.

The results are shown in the following Table 11.

TABLE 11 Frequency of cancer Krill Oil Placebo Application Frequency %Frequency % Oral 13 69.3 Topical 0 63.8 Oral & Topical 0 37.5

In conclusion, the results of the present study demonstrate that bothoral and topical krill extract maybe effectively used for the protectionof skin against the harmful effects of UVB radiation including skincancer.

Example 3

This example illustrates the use of the present krill extract inimproving dyslexia and abnormal motor function in a 7 year old girl.

2 g per day of the krill extract were given to a 7 year old girlsuffering from dyslexia and abnormal motor function. After 1.5 months,she showed:

Increased learning ability (blind observation by psychologist)

Improved motor function (moderate ice skating)

Improved social skills

Improved speech

Accordingly, the krill extract has beneficial neurological properties.

All publications cited in this specification are herein incorporated byreference as if each individual publication were specifically andindividually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The citation ofany publication is for its disclosure prior to the filing date andshould not be construed as an admission that the present invention isnot entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior invention.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail byway of illustration and example for purposes of clarity ofunderstanding, it is readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in theart in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changes andmodifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit orscope of the appended claims.

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The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of treating Alzheimer's diseasecomprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effectiveamount of a phospholipid composition, wherein the phospholipidcomposition comprises: a phospholipid of the general formula (I),

wherein R1 and R2, each together with the respective carboxyl groups towhich each is attached, each independently represents a docosahexaenoicacid (DHA) or an eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) residue, and wherein X is—CH₂CH₂NH₃, —CH₂CH₂N(CH₃)₃ or

wherein the composition is suitable for human consumption.
 2. The methodof claim 1, wherein X is


3. A method of treating Alzheimer's disease comprising administering toa patient in need thereof an effective amount of a krill oil extract,wherein: the extract comprises a phospholipid of the formula (I),

wherein: R1 and R2, each together with the respective carboxyl groups towhich each is attached, each independently represents a docosahexaenoicacid (DHA) or an eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) residue, and X is—CH₂CH₂NH₃, —CH₂CH₂N(CH₃)₃, or

the extract is extracted under conditions suitable for preserving anintact phospholipid; the extract comprises phospholipids in an amount ofat least 40% w/w; the extract comprises omega-3 fatty acids in an amountof at least 15% w/w; the extract comprises astaxanthin; and the extractis suitable for human consumption.
 4. The method of claim 3, whereinsaid composition is contained in a tablet or capsule suitable for oraladministration.
 5. A method of treating Alzheimer's disease comprisingadministering to a patient in need thereof an effective amount of aphospholipid composition, wherein the phospholipid compositioncomprises: a phospholipid of the general formula (I),

wherein R1 and R2, each together with the respective carboxyl groups towhich each is attached, each independently represents a docosahexaenoicacid (DHA) or an eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) residue, and wherein X is

wherein the composition is suitable for human consumption.
 6. A methodof treating Alzheimer's disease comprising administering to a patient inneed thereof an effective amount of a krill oil extract, wherein: thekrill oil extract comprises a phospholipid of the formula (I),

wherein: R1 and R2, each together with the respective carboxyl groups towhich each is attached, each independently represents a docosahexaenoicacid (DHA) or an eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) residue, and X is

the extract is extracted under conditions suitable for preserving anintact phospholipid; the extract comprises phospholipids in an amount ofat least 40% w/w; the extract comprises omega-3 fatty acids in an amountof at least 15% w/w; the extract comprises astaxanthin; and the extractis suitable for human consumption.
 7. The method of claim 6, whereinsaid composition is contained in a tablet or capsule suitable for oraladministration.